International Organization

International Organization

International organizations, conservation efforts

• There are various international environmental organizations which are striving hard to address problems such as habitat destruction, poaching, pollution, and global warming.
• Environmental organizations operate around the world in an effort to analyze, track, and conserve the global environment.
• These organizations may be nonprofits, governmental, trusts, or non-governmental.
• Additionally, environmental organizations work at different levels around the world, including international, national, regional, or local.

1. International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP)

• IGBP was launched in 1987 to coordinate international research on global-scale and regional-scale interactions between Earth’s biological, chemical and physical processes and their interactions with human systems. The vision has three key elements:
  • The planet
  • The planet under pressure
  • Transformation in an era of rapid global change

IGBP is a world-class provider of:

• Earth system expertise
• Communication
• Coordination
• IGBP research is organised around six projects representing the Earth system - land, atmosphere, ocean and where they meet (land-atmosphere, land-ocean. atmosphere-ocean) and two further projects looking at the Earth system as a whole: Past Global Changes (PAGES) which looks at palaeoclimate, and the Analysis, Integration and Modelling of the Earth System (AIMES), which helps set the agenda for Earth system models. Plus four joint projects - carbon, water, human health and food security - with the other three international global-change programmes.

2. World Nature Organization 

• Planning for the World Nature Organization began in 2010 by the developing countries which are most threatened by climate change.
• These nations are located around the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean as well as a few countries in Africa.
• The Preparatory Commission published the WNO Treaty in June of 2012, but lack of interest left the agreement unsigned.
• This organization did not come into effect in May of 2014 as planned. Its goal was to promote economically friendly businesses, technology, energy, and activities.

3. Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF)

It  is a global partnership of governments, businesses, civil society, and Indigenous Peoples focused on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, forest carbon stock conservation, the sustainable management of forests, and the enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries (activities commonly referred to as REDD+).

The four strategic objectives of the FCPF:

• To assist countries in their REDD+ efforts by providing them with ?nancial and technical assistance in building their capacity to bene?t from possible future systems of positive incentives for REDD+.
• To pilot a performance-based payment system for REDD+ activities, with a view to ensuring equitable bene?t sharing and promoting future large-scale positive incentives for REDD+.
• Within the approach to REDD+, to test ways to sustain or enhance livelihoods of local communities and to conserve biodiversity.
• To disseminate broadly the knowledge gained in the development of the Facility and the implementation of Readiness Preparation Proposals (RPPs) and Emission Reductions Programs (ERPs).

The FCPF’s funding mechanisms:

The FCPF has two separate but complementary funding mechanisms — the Readiness Fund and the Carbon Fund — to achieve its strategic objectives. Both funds are underpinned by a multi-donor fund of governments and non-governmental entities, including private companies that make a minimum ?nancial contribution of $5 million.

• Contributors to the Readiness Fund are known as Donor Participants.
• Contributors to the Carbon Fund are known as Carbon Fund Participants.
• Developing countries participating in the FCPF (both funds) are known as REDD Country Participants

Governance

• The FCPF currently has 47 REDD Country Participants (18 in Africa, 18 in Latin America and the Caribbean, and 11 in Asia-Paci?c).
• The World Bank assumes the functions of trustee and secretariat. The World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank and United Nations Development Programme are Delivery Partners under the Readiness Fund and responsible for providing REDD+ readiness support services to distinct countries.

4. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

• The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is the leading global environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within the United Nations system, and serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment.
• Mission is to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations.
• UNEP categorize work into seven broad thematic areas:
• • climate change,
  • disasters and conflicts,
  • ecosystem management,
  • environmental governance,
  • chemicals and waste,
  • resource efficiency, and
  • Environment under review.
• Every year, they honour and celebrate individuals and institutions that are doing outstanding work on behalf of the environment.

5. The Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE)

• It was launched in 2013 as a response to the call at Rio+20 to support those countries wishing to embark on greener and more inclusive growth trajectories.
  • PAGE seeks to put sustainability at the heart of economic policies and practices to advance the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and supports nations and regions in reframing economic policies and practices around sustainability to foster economic growth, create income and jobs, reduce poverty and inequality, and strengthen the ecological foundations of their economies.
  • PAGE brings together ?ve UN agencies – UN Environment, International Labour Organization, UN Development Programme, UN Industrial Development Organization, and UN Institute for Training and Research – whose mandates, expertises and networks combined can offer integrated and holistic support to countries on inclusive green economy, ensuring coherence and avoiding duplication.
  • PAGE represents a mechanism to coordinate UN action on green economy and to assist countries in achieving and monitoring the emerging Sustainable Development Goals, especially SDG 8: “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.”

6. Climate Action Network 

• The Climate Action Network (CAN) is a worldwide network of over 1300 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in more than 120 countries, working to promote government and individual action to limit human-induced climate change to ecologically sustainable levels.
• CAN members work to achieve this goal through information exchange and the coordinated development of NGO strategy on international, regional, and national climate issues. CAN have regional network hubs that coordinate these efforts around the world.
• CAN members place a high priority on both a healthy environment and development that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (Brundtland Commission). CAN's vision is to protect the atmosphere while allowing for sustainable and equitable development worldwide.

7. Global Alliance for Climate Smart Agriculture (GACSA)

• GACSA is an inclusive, voluntary and action-oriented multi-stakeholder platform on Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA).
• Its vision is to improve food security, nutrition and resilience in the face of climate change.
• GACSA aims to catalyze and help create transformational partnerships to encourage actions that re?ect an integrated approach to the three pillars of CSA.
• GACSA works towards three aspirational outcomes to:
  • Improve farmers’ agricultural productivity and incomes in a sustainable way;
  • Build farmers’ resilience to extreme weather and changing climate;
  • Reduce greenhouse gas emissions associated with agriculture, when possible.

Members:

• GACSA is a voluntary platform open to governments, international and regional organizations, institutions, civil society, farmers’ organizations and businesses who agree with its vision and it’s Framework Document.
• Being a member does not create any binding obligations and members determine their particular voluntary actions according to their needs and priorities.
• Individuals cannot be members, but they can join GACSA’s Action Groups

8. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 

• Created in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the objective of the IPCC is to provide governments at all levels with scientific information that they can use to develop climate policies.
• IPCC reports are also a key input into international climate change negotiations.
• The IPCC is an organization of governments that are members of the United Nations or WMO. The IPCC currently has 195 members. Thousands of people from all over the world contribute to the work of the IPCC. For the assessment reports, IPCC scientists volunteer their time to assess the thousands of scientific papers published each year to provide a comprehensive summary of what is known about the drivers of climate change, its impacts and future risks, and how adaptation and mitigation can reduce those risks.
• An open and transparent review by experts and governments around the world is an essential part of the IPCC process, to ensure an objective and complete assessment and to reflect a diverse range of views and expertise.
• Through its assessments, the IPCC identifies the strength of scientific agreement in different areas and indicates where further research is needed. The IPCC does not conduct its own research.

9. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

• The UNFCCC secretariat (UN Climate Change) was established in 1992 when countries adopted the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
• With the subsequent adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and the Paris Agreement in 2015, Parties to these three agreements have progressively reaffirmed the secretariat’s role as the United Nations entity tasked with supporting the global response to the threat of climate change.
• Since 1995, the secretariat is located in Bonn, Germany.

What does the secretariat do?

• Focussing in its early years largely on facilitating the intergovernmental climate change negotiations, the secretariat today supports a complex architecture of bodies that serve to advance the implementation of the Convention, the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
• The secretariat provides technical expertise and assists in the analysis and review of climate change information reported by Parties and in the implementation of the Kyoto mechanisms.
• It also maintains the registry for Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) established under the Paris Agreement, a key aspect of implementation of the Paris Agreement.
• The secretariat organizes and supports between two and four negotiating sessions each year.
• The largest and most important is the Conference of the Parties, held annually and hosted in different locations around the globe.
• It is the largest annual United Nations conference, attended on average by around 25,000 participants.
• In addition to these major conferences, the secretariat organizes annual sessions of the so-called subsidiary bodies as well as a large number of meetings and workshops throughout the year.
• In recent years, the secretariat also supports the Marrakech Partnership for Global Climate Action, agreed by governments to signal that successful climate action requires strong support from a wide range of actors, including regions, cities, business, investors and all parts of civil society.
• At UN Climate Change Conferences, a large number of events demonstrate how non-Party stakeholders are working with governments and the UN system to implement the Paris Agreement.
• Throughout the year, the secretariat strives to keep all stakeholders informed of on the negotiating process and climate action through a variety of communications products, including social media.

10. The International Union for Conservation of Nature 

• IUCN is a membership Union composed of both government and civil society organisations.
• It harnesses the experience, resources and reach of its more than 1,300 Member organisations and the input of more than 15,000 experts.
• This diversity and vast expertise makes IUCN the global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it.
• Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to sustainable development in its projects.
• IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation.
• It tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through building partnerships.
• The organization is best known to the wider public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, which assesses the conservation status of species worldwide.
• Its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland.

11. Global Climate Change Alliance (GCCA)

• The GCCA was established by the European Union (EU) in 2007 to strengthen dialogue and cooperation with developing countries, in particular least developed countries (LDCs) and Small Island developing States (SIDS).
• By fostering effective dialogue and cooperation on climate change, the Alliance helps to ensure that poor developing countries most vulnerable to climate change increase their capacities to adapt to the effects of climate change, in support of the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
• In 2014, a new phase of the GCCA, the GCCA+ ?agship initiative, began in line with the European Commission’s new Multiannual Financial Framework (2014-2020).
• The GCCA+ aim is to boost the ef?ciency of its response to the needs of vulnerable countries and groups. Using ambitious and innovative approaches, it will achieve its goals by building on its two mutually reinforcing pillars:
• Under the ?rst pillar, the GCCA+ serves as a platform for dialogue and exchange of experience between the EU and developing countries, focusing on climate policy and bringing renewed attention to the issue of international climate ?nance. The results feed into negotiations for a new climate deal under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
• Under the second pillar, the GCCA+ acts as a source of technical and ?nancial support for the world’s most climate-vulnerable countries, whose populations need climate ?nance the most. Extra efforts will be made to strengthen the strategically important issues of ecosystems-based adaptation, migration and gender equality.
• The GCCA+ focuses its technical support on three priority areas:
  • Climate change mainstreaming and poverty reduction
  • Increasing resilience to climate-related stresses and shocks
  • Sector-based climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies

12. Green Climate Fund 

• The Green Climate Fund (GCF) is the world’s largest dedicated fund helping developing countries reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and enhance their ability to respond to climate change.
• It was set up by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2010.
• GCF has a crucial role in serving the Paris Agreement, supporting the goal of keeping average global temperature rise well below 2 degrees C.
• It does this by channeling climate finance to developing countries, which have joined other nations in committing to climate action.
• Responding to the climate challenge requires collective action from all countries, including by both public and private sectors. Among these concerted efforts, advanced economies have agreed to jointly mobilize significant financial resources.
• Coming from a variety of sources, these resources address the pressing mitigation and adaptation needs of developing countries.
• GCF launched its initial resource mobilisation in 2014, and rapidly gathered pledges worth USD 10.3 billion. These funds come mainly from developed countries, but also from some developing countries, regions, and one city.
• GCF’s activities are aligned with the priorities of developing countries through the principle of country ownership, and the Fund has established a direct access modality so that national and sub-national organisations can receive funding directly, rather than only via international intermediaries.
• The Fund pays particular attention to the needs of societies that are highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, in particular Least Developed Countries (LDCs), Small Island Developing States (SIDS), and African States.
• GCF aims to catalyze a flow of climate finance to invest in low-emission and climate-resilient development, driving a paradigm shift in the global response to climate change.

13. World Wide Fund for Nature

• The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961, working in the field of wilderness preservation, and the reduction of human impact on the environment.
• It was formerly named the World Wildlife Fund, which remains its official name in Canada and the United States.
• WWF is the world's largest conservation organization with over five million supporters worldwide, working in more than 100 countries, supporting around 3000 conservation and environmental projects.
• They have invested over $1 billion in more than 12,000 conservation initiatives since 1995.
• WWF is a foundation with 55% of funding from individuals and bequests, 19% from government sources (such as the World Bank, DFID, USAID) and 8% from corporations in 2014.
• WWF aims to "stop the degradation of the planet's natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature."
• The Living Planet Report has been published every two years by WWF since 1998; it is based on a Living Planet Index and ecological footprint calculation.
• In addition, WWF has launched several notable worldwide campaigns including Earth Hour and Debt-for-Nature Swap, and its current work is organized around these six areas: food, climate, freshwater, wildlife, forests, and oceans.

14. Global Environment Facility

• The Global Environment Facility (GEF) was established on the eve of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit to help tackle our planet’s most pressing environmental problems. Since then, the GEF has provided close to $20 billion in grants and mobilized an additional $107 billion in co-financing for more than 4,700 projects in 170 countries. Through its Small Grants Programme, the GEF has provided support to nearly 24,000 civil society and community initiatives in 128 countries.
• The GEF Partnership recently agreed to a new direction in its work to achieve greater results and helps to meet rising challenges. This agreement is set out in the Summary of the Negotiations of the Seventh Replenishment of the GEF. In combination with its traditional investments under the Conventions, the GEF is:
  • Strategically focusing its investments to catalyze transformational change in key systems that are driving major environmental loss, in particular energy, cities and food;
  • Prioritizing integrated projects and programs that address more than one global environmental problem at a time, building on the GEF's unique position and mandate to act on a wide range of global environmental issues; and
  • Implementing new strategies and policies to enhance results, including stronger engagement with the private sector, indigenous peoples, and civil society, and an increased focus on gender equality.

Protected Area Network in India

Protected Area Network in India

Protected Area Networks of India

• India is one of the 17 mega diverse countries of the world.
• With only 2.4% of the world’s land area, 16.7% of the world’s human population and 18% livestock, it contributes about 8% of the known global biodiversity, however, putting enormous demands on our natural resources.
• India is home to world’s largest wild tigers population and has got unique assemblage of globally important endangered species like Asiatic lion, Asian Elephant, Onehorned Rhinoceros, Gangetic River Dolphin, Snow Leopard, Kashmir Stag, Dugong, Gharial, Great Indian Bustard, Lion Tailed Macaque etc

Protected Area Network in India:

• A National Board for Wildlife (NBWL), chaired by the Prime Minister of India provides for policy framework for wildlife conservation in the country.
• The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016) was adopted in 2002, emphasizing the people’s participation and their support for wildlife conservation.
• India’s conservation planning is based on the philosophy of identifying and protecting representative wild habitats across all the ecosystems.
• The Indian Constitution entails the subject of forests and wildlife in the Concurrent list.
• The Federal Ministry acts as a guiding torch dealing with the policies and planning on wildlife conservation, while the provincial Forest Departments are vested with the responsibility of implementation of national policies and plans.
• A network of 662 Protected Areas (PAs) has been established, extending over 1,58,508 sq. kms. (4.83% of total geographic area), comprising 104 National Parks, 551 Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves.
• Tiger Reserves and Elephant Reserves have been designated for species specific management of tiger and elephant habitats.
• UNESCO has designated 5 Protected Areas as World Heritage Sites.
• As the ecosystems and species do not recognise political borders, the concept of Trans-boundary Protected Areas has been initiated for coordinated conservation of ecological units and corridors with bilateral and/or multilateral cooperation of the neighbouring nations.
• There are 4 categories of the Protected Areas viz, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves.

WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

• Sanctuary is an area comprised within any reserve forest or the territorial waters, which is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance. The Sanctuary is declared for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment. Certain rights of people living inside the Sanctuary could be permitted. Further during the settlement of claims, before finally notifying the Sanctuary, the Collector may, in consultation with the Chief Wildlife Warden, allow the continuation of any right of any person in or over any land within the limits of the Sanctuary

NATIONAL PARK

• It is an area within a Sanctuary or outside having adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological significance.
• The National Park is also declared for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment, like that of a Sanctuary.
• The difference between a Sanctuary and a National Park mainly lies in the vesting of rights of people livening inside.
• Unlike a Sanctuary, where certain rights can be allowed, in a National Park, no rights are allowed.
• No grazing of any livestock shall also be permitted inside a National Park while in a Sanctuary, the Chief Wildlife Warden may regulate, control or prohibit it.
• In addition, while any removal or exploitation of wildlife of forest produce from a Sanctuary requires the recommendation of the State Board for Wildlife, removal etc., from a National Park requires recommendation of the National Board for Wildlife.

Wildlife sanctuaries and National Park in India

• Jim Corbett National Park: Said to be India's most beautiful wildlife reserve, Jim Corbett National Park was established in 1936. Nestled in the foothills of the Himalayas in Uttarakhand, this National Park is spread over an area of 1318.54 sq. km. Home to a rich ecosystem the Jim Corbett consists rolling grasslands interspersed with rivers and valleys. An ideal place for bird watchers and nature lovers this national park in North India is the residing place of the endangered Bengal Tiger. Consisting of a diversified flora and fauna this sanctuary in India is home to about 600 different species of plants, over 650 species of birds and animals which includes gharial, elephant, chital, sambar, wild boar , King Cobra, Indian Pangolin nilgai, muntjac, common musk shrew, and the flying fox.
• Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary: Situated in the mighty Western Ghats the Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary is said to be heaven for nature lovers. Set amidst the picturesque surroundings and vast tracts of lush greeneries of Kerala this wildlife sanctuary in South India is the adobe of some of the rarest endangered species in the country. Beautiful as it is this wildlife sanctuary offers enthralling views of nature and includes a host of wildlife attractions like Barking Deer, Dole or Indian Wild Dog, Deer, Mouse and very rarely, a Tiger. There are also a number of birds that inhabit the Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary which include Darters, Kingfishers, Cormorants and the Malabar Hornbill.
• Gir National Park: Spread over an area of 1412 sq km the Gir National Park lies in the Gujarat Peninsular region of India. Known to be the only habitat of the world renowned Asiatic Lion, this wildlife reserve in western India is every nature lovers' dream. Consisting of a seamless blend of valleys, rivers, dense deciduous forests and swampy grasslands this national park is considered as one of the top wildlife habitats in the country. Apart from the Asiatic Lions this wildlife reserve is also famous for species like; Grey Musk Shrew, Flying Foe, Hare, Hedgehog, Small Indian Civet, Indian Pangolin, Ratel, Porcupine, Fox and Jackal. The peafowl is the most important bird found here. Kamleshwar Dam provides a large water body for marsh crocodiles, reptiles and birds.
• Sariska National Park: Counted as one of the most frequented wildlife reserves in India, Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary is located in Alwar district of Rajasthan. Extending over 800 sq km of vast green milieu and encompassing certain important historical monuments, dating back to 10 century, within the vicinity of the park this wildlife sanctuary is definitely eye candy to nature and wildlife enthusiasts. The biosphere of this wildlife sanctuary includes rocky landscapes, dry deciduous forests, and hilly cliffs. Sasrika is said to be ethereal for bird watchers with some of the rarest feathered species like Grey Partridge, white breasted Kingfisher, golden backed woodpecker and the Sand Grouse. Some of the wildlife that reside in this sanctuary are; Four-horned antelope, hyena rhesus macaque, leopard, languor and the jungle cat.
• Sunderbans National Park: Synonymous with wildlife and wildlife sanctuaries in India the Sunderbans National Park is the undisputed gem in the crown of the eastern part of India. It is situated in the world's largest Delta this wildlife reserve in India spreads over an area of 4264 square km of impenetrable mangrove forests. Bestowed with the title of a UNESCO World Heritage Site the Sunderbans in Eastern India is known to be the largest tiger reserve in the country. Idyllic for bird gazers and nature lovers the Sunderbans is home to species a multitude of species apart from the Royal Bengal Tiger like; Jungle Cat, Flying Fox, Chital, Wild boar and Pangolin.
• Ranthambore National Park: When talking about National Parks and wildlife sanctuaries in India Ranthambore National Park needs a definite mention. Ranked as one of the largest and most reputed national park in North India this wildlife sanctuary is situated in Rajasthan. Said to be the once famous hunting ground of the Maharajas of Jaipur this National Park sprawls over 1,334 sq km of terrain. Offering a gamut of flora and fauna and home to species such as the sambar, hyena, sloth bear, leopard, nilgai, dhole and lots more this is a place worth a visit.

CONSERVATION RESERVE AND COMMUNITY RESERVES

• Conservation reserves and community reserves in India are terms denoting protected areas of India which typically act as buffer zones to or connectors and migration corridors between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected forests of India.
• Such areas are designated as conservation areas if they are uninhabited and completely owned by the Government of India but used for subsistence by communities, and community areas if part of the lands are privately owned.
• Administration of such reserves would be through local people and local agencies like the gram panchayat, as in the case of communal forests.
• Community reserves are the first instances of private land being accorded protection under the Indian legislature. It opens up the possibility of communally owned for-profit wildlife resorts, and also causes privately held areas under non-profit organizations like land trusts to be given protection.
• These protected area categories were first introduced in the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002 − the amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
• These categories were added because of reduced protection in and around existing or proposed protected areas due to private ownership of land, and land use.
• A case in point was the Melghat Tiger Reserve where a large area was left unprotected due to private ownership.
• Amendments to the Wild life protection act in 2003, provided a mechanism for recognition and legal backing to the community initiated efforts in wildlife protection.
• It provides a flexible system to achieve wildlife conservation without compromising community needs.
• Tiruvidaimarudur Conservation Reserve, declared on February 14, 2005, is the First Conservation Reserve to be established in the country. It is an effort of a village community who wanted to protect the birds nesting in their village

Climate Change

Climate Change

Climate change, global warming, Effects, Efforts

• The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines ‘climate change’ as a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.
• The major characteristics of climate change include rise in average global temperature, ice cap melting, changes in precipitation, and increase in ocean temperature leading to sea level rise. Climate change leads to Global Warming.

Factors Affecting Climate Change

• There are many factors which either magnify or reduce the effects of the earth’s climate.
• Factors such as greenhouse gases increase the temperature of earth, while some aerosols and volcanic eruption reduce the temperature of the earth.
• For example, large volcanic eruptions can eject enough ash into the atmosphere to reduce the temperature for a year or more until the sulphur particles settle on the ground. These sulphur particles reflect sunlight from the earth.
• Estimation of the effect of each gas on climate change depends on the following three factors:
• Concentration of gas in the atmosphere: Concentration of gas in the atmosphere is described in terms of parts per million (ppm). For example, at present, there are nearly 420 parts of carbon per million. Before Industrial revolution, concentration of carbon was only 270 ppm. If carbon concentration increases beyond 450 ppm, then it is believed that Earth would face catastrophic impacts.
• Life span of gas in the atmosphere: Life span in the atmosphere varies with the nature of the gas. Life span of CO2 ranges from 50-200 years; methane has a life span of 12 years; nitrous oxide has a life span of 120 years and fluorinated gas has a life span of even more than 1000 years.
• Global warming potential of a gas: The same quantity of methane has 21 times, nitrous oxide has 310 times and fluorinated gases have 140 to 23,900 time’s global warming potential as that of carbon dioxide.

GLOBAL WARMING

• Global warming is an average increase in the temperature of the atmosphere near the Earth’s surface and in the troposphere, which can contribute to changes in global climate patterns.
• Global warming can occur from a variety of causes, both natural and human induced.
• In common usage, “global warming” often refers to the warming that can occur as a result of increased emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities.

Impacts of Global Warming

• Rise in Sea level
• Changes in rainfall patterns
• Increased likelihood of extreme events such as heat wave, flooding, hurricanes, etc
• Melting of the ice caps
• Melting of glaciers
• Widespread vanishing of animal populations due to habitat loss
• Spread of disease (like malaria, etc)
• Bleaching of Coral Reefs
• Loss of Plankton due to warming of seas

Gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect include:

Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases.

• Carbon dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil), solid waste, trees and other biological materials, and also as a result of certain chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture of cement). Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere (or "sequestered") when it is absorbed by plants as part of the biological carbon cycle.
• Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural practices and by the decay of organic waste in municipal solid waste landfills.
• Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste, as well as during treatment of wastewater.
• Fluorinated gases: Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial processes. Fluorinated gases are sometimes used as substitutes for stratospheric ozone-depleting substances (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons). These gases are typically emitted in smaller quantities, but because they are potent greenhouse gases, they are sometimes referred to as High Global Warming Potential gases ("High GWP gases").

How long do they stay in the atmosphere?

• Each of these gases can remain in the atmosphere for different amounts of time, ranging from a few years to thousands of years.
• All of these gases remain in the atmosphere long enough to become well mixed, meaning that the amount that is measured in the atmosphere is roughly the same all over the world, regardless of the source of the emissions.

Non Green House Gases and Aerosols

Black Carbon 

• It is a component of fine particulate matter of the size2.5 μm. It consists of pure carbon, which originates from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, coal, biofuel, biomass, wood, rubber etc. It is emitted in the form of soot.
• SOOT is an air borne mass of impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. It originates from pyrolysis.

Brown Carbon

Brown carbon is brown smoke released by the combustion of organic matter. It coexists with black carbon when released in the atmosphere.

Sources of brown carbon are:

• Breakdown products from biomass burning
• Tar materials from smouldering freres
• Coal combustion
• Combustion of fossil fuels and automobile exhaust
• Mixture of organic compounds emitted from soil
• Formed in the atmosphere from reactions of biogenic organic gases, given off naturally by trees and other organisms, that condenses to form aerosol particles.

Blue Carbon

• It is the carbon captured by the world’s oceans and coastal ecosystems.
• This carbon is captured by living organisms in oceans is stored in the form of aquatic biomass.
• Blue carbon ecosystem act as the major sink for capturing atmospheric carbon and reducing warming effects.

Green Carbon 

• It is the carbon captured into terrestrial plant biomass in photosynthesis and stored in the plants and soil of natural ecosystems and is a vital part of the global carbon cycle.

Radioactive Forcing and Global Warming

• Net radiation: It is defined as the difference between the solar radiation absorbed by the Earth-atmosphere system and the long
• wave radiation emitted by the Earth-atmosphere system to space. Net radiation influences the Earth’s climate because it determines the energy available for heating the atmosphere, ocean and land. Hence net radiation influences the seasonal variation of rainfall and the strength of the global circulation patterns.
• Radioactive Forcing: The change in net radiation caused by changes in concentration of greenhouse gas or aerosol concentrations is called as radioactive forcing or climate forcing. It is quantified at tropopause or the zone between troposphere and the stratosphere. The unit of radioactive forcing is watts per square meter of the Earth’s surface. It is observed in two different trends
  • Positive radioactive forcing: It means that the amount of incoming solar energy is more than the amount of radiations going out. It warms the earth- atmosphere system
  • Negative radioactive forcing: It means that the amount of outgoing energy is more than the amount of incoming energy. It cools earth- atmosphere system

Global Warming Potential (GWP)

• Global warming potential (GWP) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere. It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide.
• A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval, commonly 20, 100, or 500 years. GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide (whose GWP is standardized to 1).
• The GWP depends on the following factors:
  • The absorption of infrared radiation by a given species
  • The spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths
  • The atmospheric lifetime of the species
• Thus, a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime. The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated. Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength, this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength. A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a “window” of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent.

Causes of Climate Change

• The amount of solar energy, its absorption, distribution, radiation and redistribution in the atmosphere or overall the energy budget of the earth are the major factors which effect the climate and can cause a definite change.
• The change in climate can be seen as a long -term process or the short-term process. Amongst the causes responsible for climate change the natural factors attribute to the long-term climate change while the anthropogenic (manmade) factors attribute to the short-term change in the climate. The factors responsible for climate change are broadly grouped into following categories
  • Extra-terrestrial sources
  • Terrestrial sources
  • Anthropogenic sources

Extra-Terrestrial Sources of Climate Change

• Interstellar Nebulae: The path of earth around the galaxy is elliptical and its passage in every 270 to 400 million years is near to centre of the galaxy. In every 300 million years, earth passes through the dust lane arm of the galaxy. The arm has accumulation of interstellar matter or the Nebulae. This nebula of galaxy interpose between sun and earth, because of which there is reduction in solar radiation reaching the earth surface which might bring in a climate change.
• Solar irradiance: There is a regular fluctuation in the amount of energy irradiated from the outer surface of the sun or the photosphere, this alteration brings changes in the temperatures and precipitation.
• Sunspot Cycles: Sunspots are temporary spots on the photosphere of the sun which are caused by increased magnetic flux. During sunspot, surface temperature of the sun decreases but the events of solar flares and coronal mass ejection increases. Sunspots are seen in every 11 years’ cycle. Increase in sunspot activity increases the events of warming and vice versa.
• Extra-terrestrial bodies collision: Collision of extra-terrestrial bodies like meteorites, comets etc. near the earth’s axis of revolution produces a cloud of dust between the sun and earth. It reduces the net solar radiation on earth. It is also likable that the extra-terrestrial events would have caused the Big Freeze on earth some 12,000 years ago.

Terrestrial Sources of Climate Change

• Atmospheric dust: Atmospheric particulates reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the earth surface. Majority of the atmospheric particulates remain in the troposphere or lower stratosphere. Atmospheric particulates are caused due to following:
  • Dust particulates
  • Salt particles
  • Pollens
  • Smoke and soot
  • Volcanic dust and Ashes
• Solar Albedo: It is the measure of effectiveness in reflecting radiant solar energy. Surface albedo is the ratio of radiation reflected to radiation incident. Albedo is dimensionless and is measured in a scale of 0 to 1. Black bodies or black hole has albedo scale of 0 and white bodies have albedo in the scale of 1. The average albedo at the top of atmosphere is 30 - 35%. Surface albedo varies from location to location.
• Factors which affect the surface albedo in any area are:
  • Geographical and surface characteristics
  • Composition of the atmosphere
  • Position of the sun  
  • Angle and wavelength of incident solar rays
• Continental drift and Pole wandering: The drifting of continents explained by plate tectonics causes change in relative position of continents, ocean basins and the poles. The clustering of continents around the pole causes glaciation of major land masses while scattering away of continents from the poles causes deglaciation of any area.
• Oceanic Variation: Ocean currents can alter climate, as they transfer vast amount of heat in climate system. They affect the water vapor content of atmosphere significantly.

Anthropogenic Sources of Climate Change

The main human activities that contribute to an enhancement of the natural greenhouse effect are:

• Combustion of fossil fuels, which releases greenhouse gases.
• Clearing of forests for agriculture, which releases carbon dioxide through increased biomass decay.
• Deforestation, soil tillage and land degradation, which release carbon from the land system and reduce its capacity to absorb and store carbon

Impacts of the Climate Change:

Impact on Biodiversity

• Climate change is expected to have a significant influence on terrestrial biodiversity at all system levels – ecosystem, species and genetic diversity.
• The changing climate will stimulate species-level changes in range and abundance, life cycle and behaviour, and, over time, genetic evolutionary responses.
• These changes will in turn be linked with changes in natural disturbance patterns and changes in ecosystem structure and function.

Impact on Agriculture

• According to World Meteorological Organization, climate change can adversely impact global environment, agricultural productivity and the quality of human life.
• More importantly in developing countries, it will be difficult for farmers to carry on farming in the increased temperatures.
• While in temperate latitudes a rise in temperature would help countries increase food productivity, it will have adverse effects in India and countries in the tropics.
• The monsoon accounting for 75% of India’s rainfall significantly impacts country’s agriculture and livelihood of tens of millions of small farmers.
• Climate change is likely to intensify the variability of monsoon dynamics, leading to a rise in extreme seasonal aberrations, such as increased precipitation and devastating floods in some parts of the country as well as reduced rainfall and prolonged droughts in other areas.

Impact on fisheries and Aquaculture

• Climate change, more particularly harsher weather conditions, will have impact on the quality, productivity, output and viability of fish and aquaculture enterprises, thereby affecting fishing community.
• The small-scale fishers may be faced with greater uncertainty as availability, access, stability and use of aquatic food and supplies would diminish and work opportunities would dwindle. Aquaculture development opportunities will increase in particular in tropical and sub-tropical regions.
• The climate change in warmer regions offers new opportunities as production in warmer regions will increase because of better growth rates, a longer growing season and the availability of new fish farming areas where it was once too cold.

Impact on Demography 

• Rising sea levels owing to climate change would force communities in low-lying coastal areas and river deltas to move to higher ground level.
• Similarly, increase in frequency of droughts due to climate change would force farmers and pastoralists, who rely on rainfall to raise their crops and livestock, to migrate to areas in search of land and water.
• This migration/displacement of people would result in direct conflict and competition between migrants and established communities for access to land and water.
• It may be difficult for displaced communities to maintain their farming or pastoral traditions.

Impact on Glacier

• Glaciers the world over are thinning and shrinking as the planet warms, and glaciers in the Himalayas are receding faster than anywhere else.
• If the earth keeps warming at the current rate, Himalayan glaciers are likely to disappear altogether in 25 years.
• In the absence of glaciers, rivers in the Indo-Gangetic plain will become much more seasonal, threatening the rabi crop as well as domestic and industrial water supplies in the non-monsoon months.
• In addition, more precipitation will fall as rain rather than snow and the greater water run-offs will increase flooding.

Impact on Weather

• Increasing global temperatures will lead to higher maximum temperatures, more heat waves, and fewer cold days over most land areas.
• More severe drought in some areas, combined with other factors, has contributed to larger and more frequent wildfires.

Impact on Human Health

• Changes in the greenhouse gas concentrations and other drivers alter the global climate and bring about myriad human health consequences.
• Environmental consequences of climate change, such as extreme heat waves, rising sea-levels, changes in precipitation resulting in flooding and droughts, intense hurricanes, and degraded air quality have impact directly and indirectly on the physical, social, and psychological health of humans. 

Impact on Water Resources

• Climate change will have an impact on the predictability and variability in the availability of water and also increase in frequencies of droughts and floods.
• Worst sufferers would be farmers of the rainfed agriculture, which covers 60% of all cultivated land in the country.
• The risk of crop failures will increase in semi-arid zones with prolonged dry seasons forcing people to migrate, when stability of food production cannot be assured.
• Irrigated areas in large river basins and deltas can also be at risk because of a combination of factors, such as reduced runoff, salinity, increasing floods, sea level rise, urban and industrial pollution.

Lead to Sea Level Rise

• The Bay of Bengal points to the sea rising 3.14 mm a year in the mangrove swamps of ‘the Sunderbans delta’ against a global average of 2 mm, threatening the low-lying area which is home to about 4 million people.
• A trend of sea level rise of 1 cm. per decade has been recorded along the Indian coast. The major delta area of the Ganga, Brahmaputra and Indus rivers, which have large populations reliant on riverine resources, will be affected by changes in water regimes, salt water intrusions and land loss.
• The rise in sea temperature also causes coral bleaching, which negatively affects fishes, sponges, giant clams, and other sea creatures.
• The El Nino event of 1998 resulted massive mortality of corals in the Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar islands.

Threat to Cities

• The Indian cities will face the impact of climate change in various forms. Indian urban infrastructure is less advanced and over-stressed in most cities.
• The floods and heavy rains caused by climate change will devastate the urban dwellings and make havoc to the lakhs of poor lives.
• Nowadays rural population is migrating towards cities increasing the demands of power, housing and drinking water and transportation.
• The water scarcity due to glacial melting and irregular rainfalls will reduce the availability of clean drinking water.

Steps taken by Government for mitigation:

• India’s Energy Conservation Act ( Energy Conservation Act), 2001; The 2010 amendment to the S ENERGY CONSERVATION ACT created PAT scheme as a market-based trading scheme enable industries to meet the mandatory energy efficiency standards that had begun to be developed under the original Energy Conservation Act.
• PAT scheme is now India’s main effort-defining policy. It is overseen by the BEE and was introduced by the National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE).
• Use of Renewable Energy-The Electricity Act 2003 together with the National Electricity Policy 2005 (NEP) and the Tariff Policy (TP) mandate promotion of electricity generation from renewable sources. The Electricity Act and these policies envisage regulatory interventions for promotion of renewable energy sources.
• Climate Friendly Transport Sector-Transport India has taken substantial initiatives to make the transport sector less emission intensive. One of the major initiatives has been upgradation of vehicular emission norms such as Bharat Stage II, Bharat Stage III and Bharat Stage IV. The commercial manufacture of battery-operated vehicles has begun in India with a view to promoting low/ no carbon emitting vehicles.
• Conservation of Agriculture, Forest and Water Resources- National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture. There are also programmes for crop improvement and drought proofing. India has launched an ambitious Green India Mission to increase the quality and quantity of forest cover in 10 million ha of land. Also an incentive-based additional special grant of US$ 1.2 billion had been announced by the central government to all states for sustainable forestry management.
• Forestry Sector- The National Forest Policy (1988), Participatory Forest Management/Joint Forest Management Programme, National Afforestation Programme, National Forestry Action Programme and National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas.
• Coastal Area- Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction Systems (COMAPS), Land Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone (LOICZ), Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM), and Society of Integrated Coastal Management (SICOM).
• Enhancing Adaptive Capacity- the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is India’s National Implementing Entity (NIE) for the Adaptation Fund created under the UNFCCC. At present, NABARD is the only NIE in the Asia Pacific Region.

Environmental Convention

Environmental Convention

Environmental Convention

1. Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds

• The Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) is an intergovernmental treaty dedicated to the conservation of migratory waterbirds and their habitats across Africa, Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia, Greenland and the Canadian Archipelago.
• Developed under the framework of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and administered by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), AEWA brings together countries and the wider international conservation community in an effort to establish coordinated conservation and management of migratory waterbirds throughout their entire migratory range.

Species Covered by AEWA

• AEWA covers 255 species of birds ecologically dependent on wetlands for at least part of their annual cycle, including many species of divers, grebes, pelicans, cormorants, herons, storks, rails, ibises, spoonbills, flamingos, ducks, swans, geese, cranes, waders, gulls, terns, tropic birds, auks, frigate birds and even the South African penguin.
• All AEWA species cross international boundaries during their migrations and require good quality habitat for breeding as well as a network of suitable sites to support their annual journeys. International cooperation across their entire migratory range, as provided by AEWA, is therefore essential for the conservation and management of migratory waterbird populations and the habitats on which they depend.

The AEWA Action Plan

• The AEWA Action Plan specifies different measures to be undertaken by Contracting Parties to warrant the conservation of migratory waterbirds within their national boundaries.
• These include species and habitat protection and the management of human activities as well as legal and emergency measures.
• Research and monitoring, education, awareness-raising and capacity building are also essential tasks for the implementation of the Agreement.
• In addition, special protective measures are to be implemented for those waterbird populations of particular conservation concern, listed in Column A of the Action Plan.

2. The Bamako Convention 

• The Bamako Convention is a treaty of African nations prohibiting the import into Africa of any hazardous (including radioactive) waste. The convention came into force in 1998.

Origin

• The Bamako convention is a response to Article 11 of the Basel convention which encourages parties to enter into bilateral, multilateral and regional agreements on Hazardous Waste to help achieve the objectives of the convention.

Specificity

The Bamako convention uses a format and language similar to that of the Basel convention, except that:

1. it is much stronger in prohibiting all imports of hazardous waste, and
2. It does not make exceptions on certain hazardous wastes (like those for radioactive materials) made by the Basel convention.

What does the Convention cover?

• The Convention covers more wastes than covered by the Basel Convention as it not only includes radioactive wastes but also considers any waste with a listed hazardous characteristic or a listed constituent as a hazardous waste; the Convention also covers national definitions of hazardous waste.
• Other products also covered under the Convention as waste include that have been severely restricted or have been subject of prohibitions.

Purpose of the Convention

• To prohibit the import of all hazardous and radioactive wastes into the African continent for any reason;
• To minimize and control Trans boundary movements of hazardous wastes within the African continent.
• To prohibit all ocean and inland water dumping or incineration of hazardous wastes.
• To ensure that disposal of wastes is conducted in an “environmentally sound manner".
• To promote cleaner production over the pursuit of a permissible emissions approach based on assimilative capacity assumptions
• To establish the precautionary principle.

3. Basel Convention 

• The Basel Convention on the Control of Trans boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was adopted on 22 March 1989 by the Conference of Plenipotentiaries in Basel, Switzerland, in response to a public outcry following the discovery, in the 1980s, in Africa and other parts of the developing world of deposits of toxic wastes imported from abroad.
• Awakening environmental awareness and corresponding tightening of environmental regulations in the industrialized world in the 1970s and 1980s had led to increasing public resistance to the disposal of hazardous wastes – in accordance with what became known as the NIMBY (Not in My Back Yard) syndrome – and to an escalation of disposal costs.
• This in turn led some operators to seek cheap disposal options for hazardous wastes in Eastern Europe and the developing world, where environmental awareness was much less developed and regulations and enforcement mechanisms were lacking.
• It was against this background that the Basel Convention was negotiated in the late 1980s, and its thrust at the time of its adoption was to combat the “toxic trade”, as it was termed. The Convention entered into force in 1992.

Objective

• The overarching objective of the Basel Convention is to protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects of hazardous wastes.
• Its scope of application covers a wide range of wastes defined as “hazardous wastes” based on their origin and/or composition and their characteristics, as well as two types of wastes defined as “other wastes” - household waste and incinerator ash.

Aims and provisions

The provisions of the Convention center around the following principal aims:

• The reduction of hazardous waste generation and the promotion of environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes, wherever the place of disposal;
• The restriction of Trans boundary movements of hazardous wastes except where it is perceived to be in accordance with the principles of environmentally sound management; and
• A regulatory system applying to cases where Trans boundary movements are permissible.

4. The Carpathian Convention 

• The Carpathians are one of Europe's largest mountain ranges, a unique natural treasure of great beauty and ecological value, and home of the headwaters of major rivers.
• They also constitute a major ecological, economic, cultural, recreational and living environment in the heart of Europe, shared by numerous peoples and countries.
• The Carpathian Convention is a sub regional treaty to foster the sustainable development and the protection of the Carpathian region.
• It has been signed in May 2003 by seven Carpathian States (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Ukraine).

About

• The Framework Convention on the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Carpathians (Carpathian Convention) was adopted and signed by the seven Parties (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Ukraine) in May 2003 in Kyiv, Ukraine, and entered into force in January 2006.
• It is the only multi-level governance mechanism covering the whole of the Carpathian area and besides the Alpine Convention the second sub-regional treaty-based regime for the protection and sustainable development of a mountain region worldwide.

Vision

• The common vision of the Parties to the Carpathian Convention is to pursue comprehensive policy and cooperation in order to guarantee protection and sustainable development of the Carpathians.
• The improvement of the quality of live, the strengthening of local economies and communities, and the conservation of natural values and cultural heritage should go hand in hand in the Carpathian area.
• The Convention provides a framework for cooperation and multi-sectoral policy coordination, a platform for joint strategies for sustainable development, and a forum for dialogue between all stakeholders involved – from the local community and various NGO’s up to the regional and national Governments, Institutions of the European Union and the United Nations.

5. Convention on Biological Diversity 

• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was signed at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992 and entered into force on 29 December 1993.
• It is the first global agreement to cover all aspects of biological diversity: the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.

Role

• The Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity was established (Article 24) to support the goals of the Convention. Its principal functions are to prepare for, and service, meetings of the Conferences of the Parties (COP) and other subsidiary bodies of the Convention, and to coordinate with relevant international bodies.
• As a neutral organization staffed by international civil servants, the Secretariat is accountable to the COP and its subsidiary bodies and carries out those tasks that fall under its associated mandate.
• The Secretariat is institutionally linked to UN Environment, its host institution and, pursuant to decision II/19, is located in Montreal, Canada since 1996.
• The Secretariat plays a significant role in supporting the implementation of the Convention.
• This can be fulfilled, for example by compilation of national reports on compliance by domestic authorities.
• The Secretariat transmits such reports and information to the COP and sometimes elaborates a synthesis of the national reports and information on implementation.
• The Secretariat also acts as information clearing house.

6. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

• CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between governments.
• Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
• Widespread information nowadays about the endangered status of many prominent species, such as the tiger and elephants, might make the need for such a convention seem obvious.
• But at the time when the ideas for CITES were first formed, in the 1960s, international discussion of the regulation of wildlife trade for conservation purposes was something relatively new.
• With hindsight, the need for CITES is clear. Annually, international wildlife trade is estimated to be worth billions of dollars and to include hundreds of millions of plant and animal specimens.
• The trade is diverse, ranging from live animals and plants to a vast array of wildlife products derived from them, including food products, exotic leather goods, wooden musical instruments, timber, tourist curios and medicines.
• Levels of exploitation of some animal and plant species are high and the trade in them, together with other factors, such as habitat loss, is capable of heavily depleting their populations and even bringing some species close to extinction.
• Many wildlife species in trade are not endangered, but the existence of an agreement to ensure the sustainability of the trade is important in order to safeguard these resources for the future.
• Because the trade in wild animals and plants crosses borders between countries, the effort to regulate it requires international cooperation to safeguard certain species from over-exploitation.
• CITES was conceived in the spirit of such cooperation.
• Today, it accords varying degrees of protection to more than 37,000 species of animals and plants, whether they are traded as live specimens, fur coats or dried herbs.

How CITES works

• CITES works by subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to certain controls. All import, export, re-exports and introduction from the sea of species covered by the Convention has to be authorized through a licensing system.
• Each Party to the Convention must designate one or more Management Authorities in charge of administering that licensing system and one or more Scientific Authorities to advise them on the effects of trade on the status of the species.
• The species covered by CITES are listed in three Appendices, according to the degree of protection they need.

7. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals

• As an environmental treaty of the United Nations, CMS provides a global platform for the conservation and sustainable use of migratory animals and their habitats. CMS brings together the States through which migratory animals pass, the Range States, and lays the legal foundation for internationally coordinated conservation measures throughout a migratory range.
• As the only global convention specializing in the conservation of migratory species, their habitats and migration routes, CMS complements and co-operates with a number of other international organizations, NGOs and partners in the media as well as in the corporate sector.
• Migratory species threatened with extinction are listed on Appendix I of the Convention. CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals, conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them. Besides establishing obligations for each State joining the Convention, CMS promotes concerted action among the Range States of many of these species.
• Migratory species that need or would significantly benefit from international co-operation are listed in Appendix II of the Convention. For this reason, the Convention encourages the Range States to conclude global or regional agreements.
• In this respect, CMS acts as a framework Convention. The agreements may range from legally binding treaties (called Agreements) to less formal instruments, such as Memoranda of Understanding, and can be adapted to the requirements of particular regions. The development of models tailored according to the conservation needs throughout the migratory range is a unique capacity to CMS.

Organizational Structure of the Convention

• The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the decision-making body of the Convention. It meets at three-yearly intervals.
• Its Standing Committee (StC) gives policy and administrative guidance between meetings.
• The Scientific Council (ScC) meets between COP sessions to offer scientific advice and identify research and conservation priorities.
• The Secretariat develops and promotes Agreements, services meetings, supports and supervises research and conservation projects and co-operates with governments and partner organizations. The Secretariat is provided by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and is based in Bonn, Germany and has an out-posted office in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.

8. Minamata Convention on Mercury

• The Minamata Convention on Mercury is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from the adverse effects of mercury.
• The Convention draws attention to a global and ubiquitous metal that, while naturally occurring, has broad uses in everyday objects and is released to the atmosphere, soil and water from a variety of sources. Controlling the anthropogenic releases of mercury throughout its lifecycle has been a key factor in shaping the obligations under the Convention.
• Major highlights of the Minamata Convention include a ban on new mercury mines, the phase-out of existing ones, the phase out and phase down of mercury use in a number of products and processes, control measures on emissions to air and on releases to land and water, and the regulation of the informal sector of artisanal and small-scale gold mining.
• The Convention also addresses interim storage of mercury and its disposal once it becomes waste, sites contaminated by mercury as well as health issues.
• The Minamata Convention is named after the Japanese city of Minamata, which experienced a severe, decades-long incidence of mercury poisoning after industrial wastewater from a chemical factory was discharged into Minamata Bay.
• The wastewater contained methylmercury, which bioaccumulated in fish and shellfish in the bay. Local people who consumed seafood from Minamata Bay became very sick, and many died or were left severely disabled.

What does the Minamata Convention require?

The Minamata Convention requires that party nations:

• Reduce and where feasible eliminate the use and release of mercury from artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM).
• Control mercury air emissions from coal-fired power plants, coal-fired industrial boilers, certain non-ferrous metals production operations, waste incineration and cement production.
• Phase-out or take measures to reduce mercury use in certain products such as batteries, switches, lights, cosmetics, pesticides and measuring devices, and create initiatives to reduce the use of mercury in dental amalgam.
• Phase out or reduce the use of mercury in manufacturing processes such as chlor-alkali production, vinyl chloride monomer production, and acetaldehyde production.
• In addition, the Convention addresses the supply and trade of mercury; safer storage and disposal, and strategies to address contaminated sites.
• The Convention includes provisions for technical assistance, information exchange, public awareness, and research and monitoring. It also requires Parties to report on measures taken to implement certain provisions. The Convention will be periodically evaluated to assess its effectiveness at meeting its objective of protecting human health and the environment from mercury pollution.

 9. Rotterdam Convention

• The Rotterdam Convention is an international treaty designed to facilitate informed decision-making by countries with regard to trade in hazardous chemicals.
• It establishes a list of covered chemicals and requires parties seeking to export a chemical on that list to first establish that the intended importing country has consented to the import.
• It also requires that a party seeking to export a chemical that is not listed under the Convention but that is subject to a ban or severe restriction in its own territory must provide notice to the importing country of the proposed export. The Convention entered into force on February 24, 2004.

How Does the Prior Informed Consent Procedure Work?

• The Rotterdam Convention establishes a prior informed consent (“PIC”) procedure to ensure that restricted hazardous chemicals are not exported to countries that do not wish to receive them.
• The PIC procedure does not ban or restrict any chemicals, nor does it mean that any individual country must automatically prohibit their import.
• Parties implement the PIC procedure through extensive information exchange, priority attention to national decisions on imports, and obligations related to export controls.

What Chemicals Are Covered Under the Rotterdam Convention?

• The Rotterdam Convention applies to industrial chemicals and pesticides that meet the criteria for listing under the Convention, generally because they have been banned or severely restricted in party countries or are severely hazardous pesticide formulations.
• Chemicals are subject to the PIC procedure if they are included in Annex III of the Rotterdam Convention.

10. Stockholm Convention

• The Stockholm Convention is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
• POPs are chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms and are toxic to humans and wildlife.
• POPs circulate globally and can cause damage wherever they travel.
• In implementing the Convention, Governments will take measures to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs into the environment.
• Over 152 countries ratified the Convention and it entered into force, on 17 May 2004.The Stockholm Convention focuses on eliminating or reducing releases of POPs.
• It sets up a system for tackling additional chemicals identified as unacceptably hazardous.
• Ultimately, the Convention points the way to a future free of dangerous POPs and promises to reshape our economy's reliance on toxic chemicals.

The Stockholm Convention is perhaps best understood as having five essential aims:

• Eliminate dangerous POPs, starting with the 12 worst
• Support the transition to safer alternatives
• Target additional POPs for action
• Cleanup old stockpiles and equipment containing POPs
• Work together for a POPs-free future

11. Tehran Conventions

• The understanding of the necessity to protect and preserve the Caspian Sea’s natural resources for future generations and that this goal can only be achieved through international cooperation was at the heart of the intent to create the Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea, the Tehran Convention.
• By ratifying the Convention the five Parties Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia and Turkmenistan confirmed their readiness to go the path of sustainable development and to take environmental concerns into account in their development planning.
• Having entered into force in 2006, the Tehran Convention is the first regional legally binding instrument signed by all five Caspian littoral states.
• It serves as an overarching governance framework which lays down the general requirements and the institutional mechanism for environmental protection and sustainable development in the Caspian Sea region.
• Under its umbrella the Parties have developed additional Protocols on priority areas of common concern.
• The effective implementation of the Tehran Convention and its Protocols will support the protection of the marine environment and with it of the livelihoods, health and well-being of present and future generations around the Caspian Sea.